📘End of Reconstruction

End of Reconstruction

The creation of the Civil Rights Act of 1875 was a tame effort by Republicans to maintain a commitment to racial equality. However, the Supreme Court pronounced much of the act unconstitutional in 1883, ruling that the Fourteenth Amendment prohibited government civil rights violations, but not those committed by individuals. Reconstruction essentially ended.

As a result, the South could more or less suppress blacks almost as they had under slavery. Jim Crow laws were state-level legal codes designed to segregate blacks. These laws often had harsh consequences if violated, and sometimes led to violent intimidation of black voters.

Cleveland's First Term Contributions

Several key events occurred during Cleveland's terms as president. First, Cleveland supported federal railroad regulation since the Supreme Court had ruled in 1886 that states could not regulate rates on interstate traffic. He established the Interstate Commerce Commission (ICC), the first independent federal regulatory commission. Rates had to be "reasonable and just," and the ICC could prosecute violators. Second, as mentioned earlier, the excessive tax surplus derived from high tariffs caused Cleveland to go against the Republicans' pro-business stance and support lower tariffs.

Cleveland's Second Term Contributions

Cleveland's second term was immediately marked by the start of an economic depression. To address the depletion of gold from the Treasury, he called for the repeal of the Sherman Silver Purchase Act of 1890. The act instructed the Treasury to make silver purchases each month and to issue treasury notes redeemable in gold or silver.

During the depression, paper currency was turned in for gold, and, by law, the legal tender notes had to be reissued. This drained gold from the Treasury. Cleveland was forced to make a deal with bankers led by J. P. Morgan to borrow $65 million in gold, plus interest. But the bankers obtained half of the gold abroad, which helped stop the draining of the Treasury.

 

The bad economic times resulted in the Pullman strike of 1894, the second year of the four-year depression. Pullman manufactured railroad sleeper cars but had to either lay off or reduce the pay of thousands of employees. Simultaneously, Pullman refused to lower rents in the Chicago company town where employees lived. The strike spread nationwide as the American Railway Union refused to move trains with the Pullman cars. Cleveland won a court injunction ordering employees back to work. When they refused, he sent federal troops to Chicago (similar to what Hayes did during the railway strike of his time), and many were killed or injured.

The last third of the 1800s saw a balance between the Democratic and Republican parties in Congress, resulting in the appearance of a stalemate on issues. To stay in power, each party avoided controversial issues. This included electing presidents who believed that Congress, not the president, should form policies. This view differed from that of the strong leadership presidents who had came before, such as Lincoln, and would not be seen again until Theodore Roosevelt. Party politics of certain states was key. Swing states, those in which the electorate was closely split between both parties, became important battle grounds for party politicking. Some people at the time joked that one thing you needed to become a president was to be from Ohio, a key swing state.

Summary

Given what you now know about US politics in the late 1800s, why do you think Twain and Warner dubbed this period "gilded"? Politics during the Gilded Age was often controlled by big money and political machines that determined who got access to offices (patronage), dominated elections, and formed policy-making strategies. Party loyalty extended over generations. Even presidents who attempted reform were hampered by their own party's wishes. Corruption and unregulated corporate growth occurred without offering people relief from poverty, abuse, and manipulation by party machines. Read more about the Gilded Age.

Has this changed in modern times? How do we balance the needs of the constituents with the right of people to collectively choose candidates from whom they might expect some policies that favor their interests?